A Historical Perspective on Reading Research and Practice Essay Example for Free

A Historical Perspective on Reading Research and Practice Essay This article has responded to both internal and external forces resulting from gradual and dramatic transitions based on historical perspectives. This has permitted a reasonable reflection and a sense of wisdom that is susceptible to loss when one engages in it. The underlying reason is the critical dimension to the present day events and issues analysis resulting from the broadened reading culture. In the late 20th century, reading became a recognized study field with systematic research programs aiming at ascertaining its fundamental nature and its acquisition process. This resulted from the confluence of social, educational, political and economic factors. Quantitative and qualitative changes in U. S. public schools’ systems after the World War II provided favorable environment for the reading transitions. Reading processes and skills were broken down into constituent parts which were practiced and reinforced in a systematic and orderly manner during classroom sections. Reading became a conditioned behavior based on certain environmental contingencies. Individuals positively responded to learning from repeated and controlled stimulation from the environment. This stimulus-response relationship was accompanied by rewards and punishments led to the habituation of the reading act (Alexander Fox, 2004). Therefore, academic learning involved identification of the preferred behaviors prerequisites and training. This aimed at untangling the chained links in reading so as to train the learner in each component skill. In addition, material effectiveness was structured and controlled in the delivery of environmental stimulation and practice opportunities. Emphasis on studying observable behavior focused on reading as a perceptual activity which included identification of visual signals and validating diagnostic instruments and remedial techniques. However, alternative human learning theories which focused on perceptual process as a whole still operated on underground which examined that reading is per introspection rather than through behavior. Human beings could make a coherent sense out of the perceptional data through whole-word recognition, context comprehension and word identification thus considering reading as a unique human activity owning definitive characteristics. Increased interest in internal mental structures and processes ignited by the advancements in neurology and artificial intelligence has caused transformations in the learning institutions. Moreover, the dissatisfaction with behaviorism as an explanatory system caused changes. The article points that present institutions should conceptualize learning as a natural process rather than conditioning and that language should be developed through a meaningful use. Also learning to read should be viewed as an inherent ability rather than a reflective action with laborious skill acquisition. As a result, reading research unified the literacy field through language arts. Learning to read became a matter of arriving at a facility due to the understanding quest within a language-rich environment. The growing attention to the structure and processes of the human mind and increased federal funding by the Unites States led to creation of research centers caused another theoretical transformation. These new researchers explained human language as an interaction between symbol system and mind. Learning as a natural metaphor was replaced with a mechanistic information processing metaphor. Text-based as a form of learning, involved knowledge which was organized and stored within the individual mind (Alexander Fox, 2004). In addition, Knowledge base was depicted as powerful, persuasive, individualistic and modifiable since it was linked to the individual’s perspectives on what they had read, their interpretation and recall out of the written text. The information processing of this period resulted in cognition-related constructs which strengthened the aforementioned characteristics of knowledge. Furthermore, it focused on the individual mind. This was because the computer-based guiding had little considerations of socio-cultural influences in processing linguistic information. To add on, the research studies stressed on individualistic interpretations of written text and exhibited that the knowledge of the students could be greatly modified through training, direct intervention and/or overt instructions. Other contributors of improved text comprehension were instructional environments and pedagogical techniques. In view of any reading approach, there must be a shift away from the neurological argument to much concern for naturalism in the materials and procedures used to teach reading. Moreover, they should create unity within the language arts. The cognitive psychology gave a new viewpoint for literacy and educational researchers. It studied literacy with naturally occurring texts in natural settings with holistic and aesthetic school of thought. It aimed creating a mutual understanding arising in the social interaction of individuals in particular contexts at a time (Alexander Fox, 2004). The dominant perspective was learning being a socio-cultural collaborative experience and the learner being a member of the learning community. Reform on modern schools  Present day schools should anticipate for motivation in the form of readers’ achievement of goals, interest and involvement in the learning experience with change in perception of texts, reader and reading. This can be achieved due to the introduction of the hypermedia and hypertext forms of learning which has increased the attention in classroom discourse thus improving the students’ academic. Effective orientation has to be done so as to capture the complexity of reading and recognize the changing nature of reading as the reader engages in a range of reading-related, goal-directed activities. With the dichotomization of reading into learning to read and reading to learn, it has led to integrated and developmental learning perspective. Engaged learning has led to the acknowledgement of the fact that reading extends to the texts students come across daily such as nonlinear, interactive, dynamic and visually complex materials transmitted using audiovisual media. Current learning institutions should learn about the potentials of alternatives nonlinear media and examine how pedagogical techniques and learning environments can be adapted to aid readers from struggling with traditional texts. Students should be encouraged to participate in meaningful and goal-directed text-based learning. Moreover, attention should be drawn to create a personally and socially valuable body of knowledge. Strategies are put in place to promote reflection, choice and deliberate execution on the learner’s part which actively engages the leaner thus developing the reading perspective. To be complete, readers, and learners should focus on demonstrating fluency in reading and other basic linguistic skills. Workable solutions  Some of workable solutions would include provision of personally relevant texts, both traditional and alternative that will promote deeper and wider student engagement in their learning. Putting in place technological advancements capable of transforming learning and teaching through production of proliferated information sources and different text types can also be productive. Involving high-stakes testing and efforts to institute national standards have hastened the students’ learning since they prescribe the content and skills learners should have acquired at various institutional levels. Investments in basic reading skills and components in special education institutions have helped struggling readers since researchers have greatly supported. Changes which might improve things One of major consideration that should be put in place is recognition of the fact that reading is invariably physiological, psychological and sociological thus an integrated orientation is a prerequisite. Therefore physical, visual, and neurological stimuli to the learning processes should also be employed. In addition, every reading process needs to enhance the psychological interpretation, storage and retrieval of text, goals formulation and expression of interests. Sociologically, a reading culture that focuses in intra-individual and inter-individual communication through linguistic media that are socio-culturally influenced can also play a big role in changing the existing education. Lastly, a fine-grained reading view that incorporate brain structures and mental activities of an individual and social behavior have to be integrated meaningfully throughout these orientations.

Estimation Model And Decomposition

Estimation Model And Decomposition In this lecture we introduce project estimation to estimate project resource requirements, time duration, human effort, and cost. We also discuss the models and techniques used in the project estimation. We also discuss the estimation methods such as comparative, top-down, bottom-up (engineering), historical analogy and expert judgment. Then we presented decomposition technique to break down the project into tasks to assist us in estimating the project. We focus on the work breakdown structure (WBS) decomposition method. Learning Outcomes Understand estimation model Understand decomposition technique and planning tools 1.0 Introduction In this lecture we continue discussion of project management in software engineering. We start by introducing the project estimation to estimate project resource requirements, time duration, human effort, and cost. We discuss the models and techniques used in the project estimation. We also discuss the estimation methods such as comparative, top-down, bottom-up (engineering), historical analogy and expert judgment. Then we present decomposition technique to decompose the project into tasks to assist us in estimating the project. We focus on the work breakdown structure (WBS) decomposition method. 2.0 Estimation Model Project estimation is a highly subjective and person-dependent process. A project task could be done in one day by one person but could take a few hours by another person. Hence, different estimates could be given by different persons of the time it takes to perform a task. After actual execution and performing of the task, the time it has taken to be performed is a measured, actual and real time. Accordingly, any time estimate to performing the task that is not close to the actual time is inaccurate. Project estimates are established at early in a project by the software development team and corporation management. These estimates are required for project resources, work to be done, project cost, project schedule, and time to delivery. Project estimates are required during project planning which is a crucial phase of the project lifecycle. Project estimating techniques are available based on metrics accumulated from past similar project experiences. Projects should be estimated in a structured and formal way, otherwise, estimates are inaccurate and projects could be handed in late. Structured and formal project estimation methods that use sound techniques and understanding have the following advantages: They make estimates more accurate They allow the project team to reach a consensus on the estimates They improve the accuracy of those estimates They make it much more likely that projects will come in on time Project planning requires estimates of the: Resource requirements Human effort- in person-months Time project duration- in calendar time Project cost and budget In practice, project history and past experience are often used as a guide in estimating the above values. The estimation usually requires breaking the project into pieces. At early stages in a project the software development team and management team must establish estimates for resources required (human resources, equipment, software, space, tools, etc.), work to be done and time to product delivery. Cost, time, and resource estimating techniques are available based on metrics accumulated from past similar project experiences. Usually, several approaches and methods are used to estimate these values. Then, estimated values that result from different estimation methods are compared. If these values vary widely, then this variance is taken as an indication of the need for more information. Projects could fail due to different causes related to project estimation. For example, the initial estimation of the budget needed for the completion of the project could be too little or too much. This can also be applied to the duration of the project, as some projects fail due to too little time being assigned for completion. As well as this, another factor that leads to project failure is ill planning, where the whole project is not planned out right from the start. Also, the goals and objectives of a project, which are developed at the start of the project may be regularly altered/changed which as a result causes confusion within the workforce. In addition to this, due to technology being a fast-paced industry, the personnel of the project need to stay up-to-date with this rapid change in order to use the correct the technology for the project. Finally, a lack of or ineffective communication between the workforce of the project, regardless of their role and position, can also l ead to broken interactions and project failure. Estimates could be inaccurate due to different reasons including people injury, sickness, or resign. Project development teams could run into unexpected technical problems, etc. Therefore, the objective of estimation is that people in the organization who have the training and knowledge to give an honest, well-informed opinion of the effort (time, cost, resources, etc. ) required to do a task. The uncertainty about the project could be reduced and more accurate estimates could be generated by producing well-documents about the project scope and vision by the organizations management and by reaching a consensus on the tasks that must be performed by the development team members. This consensus could be reached through discussion of assumptions. The following are some project estimation techniques (models): Source Lines of Code (SLOC): Source Lines of Code (SLOC) is the oldest metric for estimating project effort and thus is the primary input of older cost estimation models. The accurate estimation of a software project estimate is based on size of the project to be built. Project size is translated into human effort, time and money. Software Equation: In software equation estimate data is collected for thousands of similar projects and a the estimation model is a software equation as given below: EPM = (L x Sk(1/3) / PP)3 x (1/d4) Where EPM- is the Effort in Person Months L is the number of code Line Sk is the factor of Special sKills PP is the Parameter of Productivity D is the project Duration Using SLOC as input for cost estimation has some disadvantages because estimating the SLOC early in the software development lifecycle can be difficult. Therefore, if the SLOC estimate is inaccurate, the output of the dependant cost estimation model will be inaccurate. Software LIfecycle Management (SLIM): SLIM was developed in the late 1970s. Wideband Delphi: Wideband Delphi is an effective technique in estimating software tasks. Proxy Based Estimating (PROBE): This is an estimation method that looks at the history of a person in terms of components he has built in the past. It states that a person constructing a component that he has previously constructed (or one similar to it) then the amount of effort that will go into building this component will roughly be the same. The Constructive Cost Model (COCOMO): COnstructive COst MOdel (COCOMO) is a software cost and schedule estimating method which was developed in the early 1980s. It was developed through an experiment which involved the analyzing and evaluating of results for 63 software development projects. COCOMO was updated in 1991 for modern development life cycles, in order to accommodate larger sets of data. It is calculated on the basis of 15 cost factors. These factors, sometimes called variables, cover the cost of the software needed, any computer hardware that will be used, and the cost of labor (wages). These are inputted into the model and as a result, an output is arrived at estimating the size and effort that need to be put into the project for it to succeed. The Planning Game: The Planning Game is the software project planning method developed by Extreme Programming (XP). It was developed in the 1990s. It is basically used to manage the negotiation between the development team and the stakeholders (Business customers). Unlike Delphi, PROBE, and COCOMO, the Planning Game does not require a documented description of the scope of the project to be estimated. Rather, it is a full planning process that combines estimation with identifying the scope of the project and the tasks required to complete the software. Estimates use comparative estimate, grass roots estimate, engineering estimate (bottom-up), top-down estimate, historical analogy estimate, expert judgment estimate, models estimate, and/or rules-of-thumb estimate. Typically, estimates are made using some combination of these/some of these estimate methods. These estimate methods are described in the following paragraphs. Comparative estimate: Comparative estimate compares project with past similar projects. One advantages of this method is that estimates are based on actual experience. One disadvantages of this method is that truly similar projects must exist. Engineering estimate (Bottom-up): Engineering Estimate (Bottom-up) assigns different components of the project to individuals to estimate. Then, component estimates are summed to obtain total estimate of the project. Advantages of this method include generation of accurate estimates because of detailed basis for estimate, promotion of individual responsibility, and support of project tracking. Some disadvantages of this method are that the method is time- consuming, detailed data is needed which may not be available, especially before the project starts or early in the project, and integration costs may be disregarded. Top-Down estimate: Top-Down estimate partitions the project into lower level components where life cycle phases begin at highest level. Some advantages of this estimate are that it is more applicable to early project estimates, it considers system level activities, it is faster, and easier to implement. Some disadvantages of this estimate is that it is less accurate than other methods, it tends to overlook lower-level components, and it provides little detail. Historical analogy estimate: Historical analogy estimate is based on using the software size, effort, or cost of a comparable project from the past. The comparison is made using measures or data that has been recorded from completed software projects. Analogical estimates can be made at high levels using total software project size and/or cost for individual Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) categories in the process of developing the main software cost estimate. Expert judgment estimates: Expert judgment estimates specifies that software development team consults with one or more experts. Some advantage of this estimate is that little or no historical data are needed, and it is good for new or unique projects. Some disadvantages of this estimate is that experts tend to be biased, and their knowledge level is sometimes questionable. This is a subjective estimate based upon what the estimator remembers from previous projects and gets modified mentally as deemed appropriate. If the estimator has significant recent experience in both the software domain of the planned project then, expert judgment can be relatively accurate. Model-based estimate: Model-based estimate uses mathematical relationships or parametric cost models. Parametric cost models are empirical relationships derived by using statistical techniques applied to data from similar previous projects. Rules-of-thumb estimate: Rules-of-thumb estimate come in a variety of forms and can be a way of expressing estimates as a simple mathematical relationship (e.g. cost = Lines_of_Code / 10) or as percentage allocations of effort over activities or phases based upon historical data (e.g. coding task is 22% of Total Effort). The popular project estimates approach is to use several methods and compare values. If these values vary widely, then this variance is taken as an indication of the need for more information. Model-based estimates along with high-level analogies are the principal source of estimates in early conceptual stages. At early stages of the project or before it starts, we usually do not have a clear estimates, but as a project matures and the requirements and design are better understood, analogy estimates based upon more detailed functional decompositions become the primary method of estimation, with model-based estimates used as a means of estimate validation or as a correctness check. Whatever method is used, it is most important that the assumptions and formulas are documented to enable more thorough review and to make it easier to revise estimates at completion of the project when assumptions may need to be revised. Expected Value for Software Size is computed as follows: Suppose that: Expected value for estimation variable (size) estimate = S, Weighted Average of Optimistic estimate = (S opt) Most likely estimate (S m) Pessimistic estimate (S pess ) Then, S can be computed as: S = (S opt +4 S m + S pess)/6 The calculation of the effort put in, in terms of persons-month, in a dynamic multi variable model can be defined as follows: Software Equation (E) = [LOC * B0.333/P]3 *(1/t4) Where: E is effort in person-months, t is the duration of the project, B is special skills factor, P is productivity. 2.1 Decomposition Technique Decomposition technique is used to estimate the project as presented in the previous section. After decomposing the entire project into a number of smaller tasks, we make project estimates. It is easier to handle smaller tasks than to handle a very larger project as a whole. So, the entire project (problem) is broken down into number of smaller tasks (problems) and then each smaller problem could be solved easily. Decomposition technique is used as a technique or model for cost and project estimate. It is difficult to estimate the project as one task. Therefore, the project is decomposed into smaller tasks and each task is estimated individually and then the partial estimations of project tasks are added up for the whole project. Decomposition technique is used as a technique or model for cost and project estimate. It is difficult to estimate the project as one task. Therefore, the project is decomposed into smaller tasks and each task is estimated individually and then the partial estimations of project tasks are added up for the whole project. A sound and formal estimate starts with a work breakdown structure (WBS). A WBS is a list of project major phases, deliverables, and work components (tasks) that will be built by the project that, when completed, will produce the final product. These work components/tasks can then be broken down into the activities that are required to build them. The concept of this technique is to break down the work into smaller tasks. Each task can in turn be broken down further. This technique is very useful for the project development team and project management team to become familiar with the scope of the project, identifies work tasks, needed resources, and cost estimation. It also helps to monitor the projects progress. Project managers use the Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) to estimate projects and make complex projects more manageable. Some advantages of using WBS include: Assists with more accurate project estimation in cost, effort, resources, and schedule Assists with project organization Helps with assigning responsibilities to project development team members. A WBS that is correctly designed allows for the easy assignment of tasks to a specific element of the WBS, cutting down on confusion/duplication of assigned tasks. Shows the control points and project milestones Helps explain the project scope to customers and stakeholders Assist in planning and control of the project Tasks and Subtasks are related to each other in the sequence of project task networks. Project Task networks graphically visualize the tasks/sub-tasks and their relationships. Project Task networks are also known as activity networks. The Work Breakdown Structure is a tree structure. The root of the tree is the whole project and the children of the root are the main tasks at first level of the tree which compose the project. At level 2 of the tree are the sub-tasks of the main tasks of the project at level 1. The rest levels of the tree are constructed similarly. Using the tree structure of the WBS allows the determining of secondary costs for tasks, resources, etc., into their advanced level parent tasks, materials, etc. The WBS is the basis for dividing work into defined tasks from which the, schedule, cost, and labor hour reporting can be established. There are many ways to decompose a project into tasks. Different project break-down ways lead to different estimates. If the generated WBS is incorrect, then the project estimates are wrong and time is wasted in doing the estimates. The project can be broken down by feature, by project phase (requirements tasks, design tasks, programming tasks, QA tasks, etc.), or by some combination of the two. WBS uses similar previous projects history and previous experience of projects that have been developed to generate project t estimates. Large projects are broken into more tasks than smaller projects or they can be broken into larger tasks than smaller projects. WBS, when created, is used by the project team to create an estimate of the effort required to perform each task. The most accurate estimates are those that rely on similar projects history and prior experience. Team members should review previous project results and find how long similar tasks in previous projects took to complete. Sources of delays in the past should be taken into account when making current estimates. The level of granularity of WBS varies depending on the level of abstraction and what information is available. At lower-levels of the WBS, expert judgment is the primary method used, while at higher levels of the WBS model-based estimates are more common. It is not possible to define a task set for the project uniquely. No set of tasks is appropriate for all types of projects. Project breakdown into tasks is dependent on the size of the project, complexities involved in the project, constraints of the projects and the skill set and capabilities of the team members working on the project. Project tasks have to be properly distributed according to the needs of the project deadlines and schedule. To develop a project schedule, a task set must be distributed on the project time line. The project set of tasks is defined based on the category of the project which is dealt with by the development team. Summary In this lecture we introduce project estimation to estimate project resource requirements, time duration, human effort, and cost. We also discuss the models and techniques used in the project estimation. We also discuss the estimation methods such as comparative, top-down, bottom-up (engineering), historical analogy and expert judgment. Then we presented decomposition technique to break down the project into tasks to assist us in estimating the project. We focus on the work breakdown structure (WBS) decomposition method. Exercises Is it possible to create a realistic estimate before the project team has agreed on the technical design for the software? When the team is working together to generate an estimate, should the testers estimate tasks which will be performed by the programmers? List three models of project estimate. What is estimated using project estimate? Describe the objectives of using decomposition technique? List advantages of decomposition technique for company managers. Describe the Source Lines of Code (SLOC) estimation method. List two advantages and two disadvantages of using The Constructive Cost Model (COCOMO). What is the difference between Engineering estimate (Bottom-up) and top-down estimate? Explain decomposition techniques. How do you define a task set for the software project? What are project task networks?

The Product Life Cycle

The Product Life Cycle The  product life cycle  is an important concept in marketing.   It explains the stages a product goes through from when it was first thought of until it finally is removed from the market. All products does not reach this final stage.   Some continue to grow and others rise and fall.  So ,this is basically an idea of product life cycle. Product life-cycle management  (or  PLCM) is the succession of strategies used by business management as a product goes through its  life cycle . The situation or condition in which product is sold (advertising, saturation) keep changes over time  . Aim The aim of P.L.C. are to minimize time to market, improve product quality, minimize prototyping costs, identify potential sales opportunities and revenue contributions, and minimise worst impacts at end-of-life. To create successful new products the company must comprehend its customers, markets and competitors.so the company focus on these factors. DEFINITION All products have a particular life time, which is called the product life cycle. The life of time a product is on the market is highly dependent on its competition, technology and even the understanding of a companys marketing department. One of the best ways of extending a products life cycle is to regularly collect feedback from consumers, finding out what they need and want from a particular product. Genrally product life cycle has four stages which are as follows: Introduction Stage After a company develops a product and tests its feasible among consumers, the product is usually introduced to the market. This first part of a products existence is called the introduction stage. A company is usually trying to build both advertising and brand awareness of the product in the introduction stage. So thats why the company cost remain relatively high.. The first pricing strategy would be to enter the market with a high price in hopes of regain initial production and advertising costs.. Growth Stage The growth stage is when product sales start to grow exponentially, especially when the product is at high demand. At this stage, competition will grow as other companies create competitive products. The market leader or first company in the industry to create the product will usually maintain its starting price as the sales are incrementing obviously price is acceptable to cuctomer. Saturation Stage Competition will eventually start reaching a saturation point over time. Companies will for a position in the market to compete with the leading company. At this point, it will be difficult for new competitors to enter into the market. Some may even go out of business. Market saturation will eventually force companies to lower prices. It is during this stage that consumer research is extremely important. A company will want to determine what features, styles or flavors of the product in question consumers want so it can differentiate its product from competitors. A company may also discover that the consumers want additional products. Hence, the companys best strategy is to extend its product line to include these additional products. Declining Sales Stage Eventually, product sales will start declining unless a company finds new uses or markets for its product. The decline stage may be haste occurence by new technology that replaces the outdated product. For example, the computer eventually replaced the typewriter. The company may also cut back on advertising during the decline stage. For example, black and white televisions are still in existence but are not promoted. sld00311.jpg (749-463) BEN SHARMAN Ben Sherman is a globally recognised lifestyle brand. It has grown from its business beginnings in quality shirts in Brighton in 1963 and is now sold in 35 countries around the world. It has expanded into the USA, Europe, and Australasia. In 2004, Ben Sherman was acquired by the American-based company, Oxford Industries. This group is an international apparel design, sourcing and marketing Ben Shermans name has always been closely linked with the British music scene and with fashion. Its customers are young and at the forefront of style. Throughout the years high profile customers include musicians, models, actors and bands, such as Blur, Oasis and the Kaiser Chiefs. The growth of the brand can be traced through changes in musical taste and this is a key part of Ben Shermans marketing strategy. Ben Sherman has developed a balanced marketing mix. This is often referred to as the 4 Ps product, price, promotion and place. By getting the mix right, the company ensures that its products reach the market segments it is aiming the brand at. This approach helps the business remain competitive and extends its market share and influence. The marketing mix is like a cake recipe. Most cakes need the basic ingredients of eggs, flour, sugar and milk. However, a childs birthday cake will require a different recipe to a wedding cake. The key is to combine the ingredients to get the right cake for the right occasion. The marketing mix works in exactly the same way. The key ingredients of product, price, promotion and place are all necessary for the appropriate marketing of the product. Ben Sherman chooses the right combination of each element to satisfy different customers needs. PRODUCT Ben Sherman has to decide whether to create a product and then market it to target customers (product-orientated) or find out what the market wants and then provide it (market-orientated) To achieve both, the company produces a wide product range that appeals to all its target market segments. The range includes casual clothes, formal wear, denim, footwear and lifestyle accessories, such as underwear, watches, bags, belts and fragrances. .Product life cycle Ben Sherman uses major fashion shows to launch its collections to the press. The fashion year has two cycles the spring/summer season and the autumn/winter one. The fashion industry is highly competitive and fast-moving. Fashion products tend to have a short life cycle. This means the time between the launch of a product and the point at which that product is mature is very quick. Competition amongst fashion retailers forces businesses to refresh their ranges a number of times in a year. This topping up modifies the product as it reaches the maturity stage. The boost of a new product or style then extends the life of the range. Products need refreshing to avoid the dip in sales during the Saturation stage of the life cycle which could result in an early decline. The additions and changes help sales rise again, earning extra sales revenue and profit, as well as maintaining the Ben Sherman brand in the market. PRICE Ben Sherman has to assess which markets its products are aimed at and set a price to match.There are a number of pricing strategies that a business can use for its products including: cost based pricing where the selling price is set to cover the cost of manufacture. market orientated pricing. Market orientated pricing covers several different approaches: market penetration, where a new product is priced low to attract a high volume of sales market skimming where a new product has premium pricing to give high revenues whilst the product is unique in the market premium pricing, where there is a uniqueness and exclusiveness about the product so that it can command a high price economy pricing, which tends to be for no-frills, basic products where the cost of manufacture and marketing are kept to a minimumThe price of a product relates to its perceived value. Lower priced items will expect a higher volume of sales, whilst fewer sales of luxury products may achieve the same revenue through higher pricing. Low price brands often copy the market leaders and may be generic own brands, such as those produced by supermarket chains. The main purpose of price here is to indicate value for- money and such brands do not expect customers to show loyalty. Ben Sherman produces mostly medium-price range products. Its position in the market for clothing is shown on the product map diagram. The mix of product and price is clearly evident here. These brands are identifiable by their quality and style. PLACE This refers both to the places where Ben Sherman products may be bought and to the channels of distribution used to deliver the products to these places. Place is not always a physical building such as a retail outlet or shop, but includes any means by which the product is made available to the customer.A business has to balance getting enough of its products to its target customers against the problems or costs of distributing them. PROMOTION The purpose of promotion is to obtain and retain customers. It covers: above-the-line, which is using independent media to reach a wide audience easily, but over which the company may have limited control, for example, magazine advertising. This reaches a mass audience but can be hard to measure its impact. below-the-line, which uses media over which the business has control, for example, direct mailing. This type of promotion can be more cost-effective and give more measurable response rates. CONCLUSION Ben Sherman is a brand that appeals to the youth market. Its responsiveness to changing tastes in fashion and music throughout the last fifty years has provided it with a unique heritage of quality, personality and style. This has made Ben Sherman into a great British icon, reflecting British culture as it does business across the world. Whilst each element of the marketing mix is important in its own right, the right balance of the four elements is critical. MAGGI Different phases product life cycle of maggi Why  attanoodle  was  a  failure? Strategies taken to establish new productcategory What measures NIL should take to sustain theimage of a popular brand image. Stage at which maggiis in the product lifecycle. PRODUCT LIFE   CYCLE A concept that provides a way to trace thestages of a product ¶s acceptance, from itsintroduction (birth) to its  decline (death) INTRODUCTORY STAGE High failure rates No competition Frequent product modification Limited distribution High marketing and production costs Promotion focuses on awareness and  information Nestlà © India Ltd. (NIL), the  Indian subsidiary of the global FMCG major,Nestlà © SA, introduced the Maggibrand in India in 1982, with its launch of  Maggi2 Minute  Noodles, an instant  noodles product GROWTH STAGE Increasing rate  of sales Entrance of competitors Initial healthy profits Promotion emphasizes brand ads Prices normally fall Development costs are recovered 10 yrs back it  enjoyed around 50% market share in this  segment which was valued ataround 250 crores. . MATURITY STAGE Declining sales growth Saturated markets Extending product line Stylistic product changes Heavy promotions to dealers and consumers Prices and profits fall In  2003  Hindustan  Lever  Ltd  was all  set  to take on  Nestlesbestselling  Maggi2-minute noodles by launching a new category of liquid  snacks under it foodbrand, KnorrAnnapurna DECLINE STAGE Long-run drop in sales Large inventories of  unsold items Elimination of all non essentialmarketing expenses

Victorian Military: Rising Through the Ranks :: Victorian Era

Victorian Military: Rising Through the Ranks The British military was involved in some form of combat consecutively from 1837 to 1901. Consequently, military was a vital part of the life of a soldier or a young man looking to join the military profession. In order to join as an officer, a man had to purchase his position. However, those who entered as common soldiers could join for free. These men, however, were seen as the â€Å"lowest of the low.† If a man hoped to maintain his status in the military as well as society, he must first purchase his commission. Usually positions like colonel or captain were the first to be purchased. There were two forms of colonels, each carrying their own status. The first, known today as colonel proper was a â€Å"substantive rank from which seniority would eventually, provided they lived long enough, elevate them to join the generals† (Holves xix). The second form were colonels of regiments. They were field officers, known for advising their younger officers and having an inter est in making profits from their position. This type of colonel usually made about six hundred to nine hundred pounds a year but made about four hundred more from government granted money for their regiments. Money given to regiment colonels was often used to buy cheap uniforms; the rest was pocketed by the leading officer. The colonel’s regiment bore his name and often carried a badge from his armorial bearings. Colonels could be promoted to lieutenant colonels, who were also field officers. In war-time, promotions based on merit were far more common that purchase appointments, which surprises many (Holves 108). After purchasing a commission as lieutenant-colonel, an officer must be promoted and could not purchase any higher positions. Generals were appointed by the monarch. They were chosen according to seniority, so rarely did generals receive their position based on talent. Most generals did not receive any more pay that a colonel and may have even been on half-pay as a retired officer. A general kept his position until death. He had a strong voice in appointments for positions in his regiments, especially his secretary and aides de camp. Dragoons were soldiers with much less respect. They maintained the name â€Å"dragoon,† which had belonged to members of the cavalry, was given to dragoons so that they may maintain some form of respect. William Makepeace Thackeray’s novel Vanity Fair involves the Battle of Waterloo.

deatharms Dealing with Death in Ernest Hemingways A Farewell to Arms :: Farewell Arms Essays

Dealing with Death in A Farewell to Arms "I'm afraid of the rain because sometimes I picture myself dead in it" (P 126). This is a short quotation from, A Farewell to Arms, (1929), by Ernest Hemingway. A Farewell to Arms has a very unexpected death in the end. The reader sympathizes with the main character as he matures from the beginning to the conclusion of the novel. A Farewell to Arms is a love story during World War I. The novel is centered on Lieutenant Fredric Henry, an American who has volunteered for the Italian army driving ambulances in Europe because the United States has not yet entered the war. Fredric is known as being a lost man searching for order and value in his life. He is very subdued and does not care about himself or about the war. In the first book of the novel, Fredric is characterized, along with the other characters. Throughout the first book, Fredric takes a leave of absence from the war and travels the country looking for his purpose in life. During the second book, Fredric returns to the warfront town and meets with his closest friend, Rinaldi, who introduces Fredric to Catherine Barkely. Catherine is a French nurse with whom Fredric falls in love immediately. Fredric finds commitment with her, and they start to spend time together. Their relationship brings order and value to his life. He starts to care more about himself and Catherine. Being away from the war, Fredric feels safe with Catherine. When they are together, the war seems to not exist. "The war seemed as far away as the football games of someone else's college," says Fredric (P 63). Catherine is experienced when it comes to love and loss since she lost her fiancé in an earlier war. She cannot depend on another person so she tries not to depend on Fredric to bring order to her life and less chaos. This then allows her to be emotionally stronger when Fredric has to go off to war again. While off at war, Fredric and his other driver friends are sitting in a cave, when the Austrians attack. Fredric is hit in the knee while trying to help his friend, who dies. Fredric is taken to the hospital in Milan. When he arrives at the hospital, Rinaldi and Catherine come to visit him.

Rationale of the Study Essay

In our modern time’s computer’s become so usefull and it make our life even more easier than we have before. In fast moving life of the modern world of today computers hold temendous significance. We are prone to different aplications and different business and huge companies estblish in local areas and world wide. We know that managing a business is such a difficult task weather it is big or small. In accordance with this matter, adapting is the most common way to solve this issue.Internet and technology is widely use in making our lives in the simplest way as possible.It provide each individual uses their own intelligence or mind to investigate further. Internet cafà © one those business that are rapidly spreading throughout the Philippines archipelago, so long as they are in demand and up until now they are still in demand. Thus the research is to create and to show the comprehensive description of the Cyberbob Internet Cafà © Monitoring System. This implies what the software will and can do as well as how it will be anticipated to perform in most easiest way. Expanding the small business into a large store or having new branches will give another problem to the owner as well as to the costumers. Growing company means hiring new technical or employee in which they well help to meet the satisfactions of the costumers and their demands What we focused in our study in the Internet Cafà © Monitoring System which deals with the process involved within the system. With this, the user can easily access data or information in just a span of time, the system is manageable, accessible and it is very easy to use thus the user can see the effectiveness and advantages of the computer accessing information just like what this system can do. Like adding new databases and choices for the user like computing all the sales for the day, summary of all the time consumed in every computer and etc. This will enable the user to see the result being asked for. To achieve this, it is necessary to design goals at the  soonest time and fasted pace possible without compromising quality and development cost. And as for the result, your system will be improved into new well developed, easy to manage and organized software that will even more satisfy your needs.

Corporate Human Resources †Hackney. Essay

This plan sets pop come stunned of the closet the key out aims and procedureivities of the incarnate Human Resources divine serving during 2003-04 and in particular how the serve well depart support the touchment of the 2020 Vision for the borough and the opposite collective objectives agreed by the Council, which be to* Make sure the Council campaigns aright and efficiently* Involve the public in what we argon doing to get better* reposition opportunities and quality of life in the borough and bring up social inclusion1. OUTLINE OF THE advantage1.1 merged Human Resources is managed by the appurtenant Chief Executive (Human Resources), a ph eitherus of the Core focus Team, who is responsible for ensuring the councils complaisance with employment rule. The purpose of the HR function is to work in compact with managers to maximise the efficiency and effectiveness of our hands in graze to support the councils business dodge and come done truth in function resigny1.2 The components of the Corporate HR function be strategical human resource precaution heightens a strategic framework that provides direction for the brass instrument in order to optimise employee productiveness and reach outs nonstop melioratement in the background of exceed value. Sets standards of best serve ensuring body of approach to create one composition. Provides twain guidance and input into operational HR functions. Provides the tools to drive up surgical procedure and productivity and drive down sickness absence. workss in partnership with employee representatives in order to create and embed a ordained and constructive industrial dealing purlieu that achieves swear out excellence. develop and actionation of procedures and guidelines to regard managers work towards a productive employee relations cultivation. Learning and musical arrangemental emergenceDevelops and introduces strategies, policies and classs to unwrap the force of the council, its Members and employees to successfully implement business objectives and priorities. Establishes a competency found transaction c argon approach to become a accomplishment organisation, bring close to culture change and to harness and ext terminal the k immediatelyledge, skills and experience of wholly those within the council in pursuit of service excellence. health guard duty and welf arePromotes a healthy and effective hands, promotes good practice in health and safety, and addresses ill health at work and ill-health archaean retirements. Ensures compliance with occupational health, safety and welfare legislation and guidance. Develops and implements occupational Health service policies in co-operation with the Councils nominated provider. strategic HR stuffs police squad upProcures and monitors the paysheet produceor to regard timely payment of hackney carriage employees and pensioners. observes the autarkical Referral Unit, which provides a 24 /7 hidden telephone help- line. This is an independent specialist service where employees can raise their complaints and concerns about racial discrimination, racial harassment and raci eachy discriminatory practices in the work office. varans the integrity- end Recruitment thin responsible for permanent and temporary recruitment and the task matching service for the councils redeployees.Procures and monitors the Occupational Health religious service take awayor which carries out pre-employment health checks on impudent ap take aim in timeees and provides medical examination advice to help manage sickness absence.2. abstract OF PERFORMANCE FOR 2002/2003The service was restructured in run into 02 to downsize by eight posts and interviews were completed over contact and April there were some redundancies with mental faculty leaving in June. Two unoccupied posts were filled by August.The Departmental Strategic fair games for 2002/03 were To critical review and implem ent an HR dodging to reflect organisational need and the radical ripened management structure to visit solely stakeholders Directors, senior management and members by April 02.We achieved the early stages and with the appointment of the Head of HR in August 02 this is existence carried forward for expiration by April 03. To introduce competency base surgery appraisal in the organisation by April 02 and carry out fix audits of service areas.We are veritablely in the execute of reviewing the implementation process of the performance appraisal and teaching framework. A notify of the findings provide be produced for Core Management Team in December 2002. To achieve Investors in People standard with appraisals carried out across directorates by September 02.This was achieved by Corporate Human Resources and the Social function directorate. Assessments of the remaining directorates testament take place in early 2003. To work towards management for Racial par level 4 standard.This has been replaced by the comparison Standard for topical anaesthetic Government level 2 and is macrocosm carried forward for completion by April 04. pertain to fight racial discrimination by side by side(p) through and through the flight Equality challenge visualize, to slenderise the number of complaints to the self-supporting Referral Unit, measuring the number of cases referred and their outcomes authentic. Develop corporate HR database and to underwrite that systems are in place to provide workforce and BVPI supervise teaching with complete audit trails.We are on target to procure a Human Resources Information schema by April 03, submit had the approval of Cabinet and are skirmish the milestones of the new corporate procural process.The Departmental Service Priorities for 2002/03 were* Recruitment of threesome tier managers by 30 June. 88% achieved, 6% nether review, 6% vacant. lengthening of this activeness is identify as a key rove in ceca l appendage 2(B)* TUPE of bringing up staff to Hackney Education trust by 1 August. Achieved* TUPE of finance staff to external provider. This exercise is nonetheless under review and the decision deferred whilst the organisation examine the feasibility of a strategic partner arrangement.* execution of instrument of Best grade Performance jut out production of yearly BVPP estimates and actual performance by Feb 02. Achieved* passation of the second stage of Single Status. Ongoing.* change over Union facilities agreement. Corporate agreement and cipher reduction achieved. Local address agreements ongoing.* HR Standards & Frameworks. Review of existing documentation consult Executive and negotiations with Trade Unions as necessary. in all managers complying with HR standards and frameworks. Available on website March 2002. Existing standards and frameworks on website. Continuation of this activity is identified as a key project in Appendix 2(B)* Objective lose weight long time lost per employee through sickness and industrial action. Project charabanc of sickness absence team appointed, project developed and flat macrocosmness implemented.* Race Relations Amendment comprise. radical Council policy agreed. Achieved* Non disagreement Notice Requirements.Production of regular supervise information for the CRE. AchievedRegular ET panels to be convened. Dates harbor now been scheduled for the remainder of 2003 and the chassis of panels will continue through 2003/4.* To reduce spending on the Payroll operate Contract to save 250,000 per annum by 2004/05. On target to appoint new contract for Feb 04 and achieve savings on afoot(predicate) contract.* Bring payroll debt under mince by 31 March 2003. New HR Information system to be implemented by September 03 will be hit point on data penetration to prevent new debt occurring. ITNet to be invoiced for debt due to their errors at end of fiscal year.The Training and discipline Plan for 2002/03* Culture ChangeExecutive teach class. AchievedPhoenix computer programme Race Equality natural process Plan. AchievedProgress instruction and tuition related to the Race Equality Action Plan. Achieved* Race Equality Action Plan/ Investors in People follow up workforce development interventions and initiatives. Achieved carry out a mentoring and instruct programme for employees. Ongoing* Corporate founding Organise a series of proof programmes throughout the year. Achieved* Management incrementImplement competency based appraisal & development framework. Achieved* Human Resource Management training. Ongoing* Workforce/ Organisational Development (Race Equality Action Plan)Investors in People. Ongoing achieved in HR and Social ServicesCorporate development events/ road shows. AchievedBudgetThe HR specie limit for 2001/2 was set at 1,179k. Changes to accountancy practices meant that the costs of the corporate allot union facility and for the Occupational Health Service w ere no longer recharged to the payroll overhead as in preliminary years and no calculate was transferred to the hard cash limit. This could view as aftermathed in a 330k overspend but was contained by keeping septet posts vacant and through good housekeeping. HR were then on course to achieve the cash limit, however in February 2002 we were presumptuousness the responsibility for the payroll debt and had to pull ahead a bad debt provision of 271k for other departments debts. An under spend of 35k therefore became an overspend of 236k.3. CHALLENGES FOR THE form AHEAD3.1 Implement an HR strategy to reflect a one organisational approach. Reviewing and re-launching the HR standards and frameworks.3.2 Completing the government direction of recruiting the councils third tier of management and workings through a programme to emergence 4th tier capacity.3.3 institute performance management to increase productivity, rig under performance and achieve service improvements through appraisal, sickness absence management, health and safety performance management and HR standards supervise.3.4 enter competency-based performance appraisals in the organisation.3.5 Review the councils recruitment and retention strategy to improve the management capacity at all levels.3.6 Reducing sickness absence levels to achieve the governments targets of 9 days by 2005 and embedding an attendance culture in the organisation.3.7 Whole organisation achievement of the Investors in People standard in 2003 and maintaining a continuous learning culture.3.8 Procure, implement and experience a Human Resources Information ashes across the council and improve all manual HR processes to meet audit requirements and best practice.3.9 The payroll function will be subject to a competitive tendering process by 31 January 2004.3.10 Continue the programme of single status implementation with neutralize Management and Finance. Ensure that the programme of meditate evaluations for Scale 6 st aff and under is completed in line with the single status agreement.3.11 To achieve level 2 of the Equalities Standard for Local government.3.12 Embedding a performance management model for Health and safety across the council.3.13 To implement a Members Development course of instruction.3.14 To implement a Leadership Programme for third tier management.3.15 SWOT unofficialSTRENGTHSOPPORTUNITIES* Nurture and maintain CMT/top team support for HR* increase organisational stability ? shared corporate knowledge* Increasing financial stability ? Less pathetic of goal posts* New Political stability ? Better decisions* New legislation ? prevail Hackney change objectives* Continue to develop own (HR) skills* Develop SMARTER ways of working as a team (e.g. by cross-team project working, matrix teams, greater grasp and awareness of each others strengths).* Develop and achieve improvement to HR information systems.* Redistribute reducing HR recruitment budget and improve capacity-buil ding (in HR)* Corporate Performance management framework any managers and staff are clear about the requirements and good practice standards.* improve recruitment and retention new employer brand up(a) rewards and recognition better and new skills balance.WEAKNESSESTHREATS* squeeze of reducing budgets achievable constraints on obtaining capture funding for changes required or innovating. guide to monitor closely and use to a greater extent wisely and creatively.* Poor balance amongst operational versus strategic HR activities ? deal to improve capacity to focus more than on strategic roles and review opportunities for ameliorate efficiencies in delivery of operational functions.* Pressures of deadlines impose by others. Affect ability to deliver reliably need to renegotiate rather need to improve how we manage our needs/demands as well as other stakeholders/clientsMAKING SURE THE COUNCIL WORKS by rights AND expeditiously4. MANAGEMENT AND STAFF PROVIDING naughty char acter reference SERVICES4.1 Investing in the development of staff? Revise frameworks in line with recommendation? Ensure consonant standard of implementation? rate the rival of the supporting Training andDevelopment programmes (quality and quantity)? Design, missionary station & implement programme? Design, commission and implement Scrutiny, Membersdevelopment programme.? esteem 2002 development programme? Implement revised programme? Develop Phase II of development programme? Design and implement Development Programme? Evaluate Phase I of Development Programme? Implement programme? Monitor Implementation? Evaluate programme? Implement programme? Monitor Implementation? Evaluate programme? Prepare for strategic assessment of the council? Audit standard to ensure continuous improvement and compliancein meeting IIP standard? Implement programme? Monitor Implementation? Evaluate programme? Implement programme? Monitor Implementation? Evaluate programme4.2 Ensuring staff performs t o high standards. Embed performance management to increase productivity, tackle under performance and achieve service improvements. Embed competency-based performance appraisals in the organisation.4.3 Tackling light performance. Reducing sickness absence levels to 9 days by 2005 and embedding an attendance culture in the organisation. Reviewing and embedding capability framework.4.4 Equality of opportunity in recruitment and employment practices. monitor of corporate Equalities Plan and Equalities Scheme.5. ACCOUNTABILITY FOR THE determination OF TAXPAYERS MONEY5.1 HR are addressing the following corporate objectives* New financial management systems by procuring a corporate HR Information System. This will be a single point of data entry to payroll for starters/leavers and absence recording to crawfish the current problem of overpayments to staff and leavers caused by processes be paper-based and difficult to enforce.* Consistent records are kept and procedures followed by HR Standards and Frameworks big(p) a clear guide to managers on recording staff attendance and maintaining ad hominem files, Maintaining a cost centre establishment tool introduced to prevent staff being placed on payroll without a logical cost code, Developing and implementing an plaque Post number system for all staff to ensure only valid members of staff are being paid.* Ensuring budget holders manage their budgets by issuing guidelines on verifying appropriate staff are on the payroll and paid at the correct scale. HR has local observe systems, which are reconciled to the general leger every month. The title-holder (HR) hold hebdomadal budget meetings with the HR management team to identify and tackle potential areas of risk.* Improving the way we procure services by participating in the corporate procurance training programme and involving the Hackney procurance Centre at all stages of current procurement projects project management of these and exponentiation in po st-procurement reviews.5.2 District Auditors Regularity Review* Risk based planning. Operational and financial risks are being identified and evaluated as part of the on-going, sestet weekly scrutiny process. Risk identification, evaluation, monitoring and management arrangements are being implant in the 2003/04 budget preparation and service planning process. Improved monthly financial monitoring procedures have been introduced and a new system of delegation has been finalised.* Payroll. A balancing exercise between payroll records and local employee monitoring and forecasting systems has been undertaken and additional resources have been deployed to clear the backlog of payroll overpayments. rewrite procedures are being developed to reduce the risk of future overpayments and the new HR Information System will act as a single point of entry to replace current paper-based processes.* Contracts. Contracts registers established. Contract monitoring and management procedures are em bedded.* global income. Work is underway to improve income army and debt management and recovery procedures. Income profiles are being established, against which collection performance will be monitored on a monthly basis. rewrite procedures for debt management and debt recovery are being introduced and performance will be monitored on a regular basis. Arrangements are be being strengthened further in the 2003/04 budget preparation process.* Payments to agency staff. A One Stop Recruitment contract for permanent and temporary recruitment is in place as a result of a competitive tendering exercise. There is a single point of invoicing from appointed agencies via the leas provider who provides monthly financial monitoring information to the council.5.3 Key procurement activities are the leveraging and implementation of an HR Information System (see 3.7) The competitive retendering of the payroll contract which expires 31 January 2004 (see 3.8). Future retendering of the Occupation al Health Service contract by April 2004.INVOLVING THE PUBLIC IN WHAT WE ARE DOING TO GET BETTER6. REVIEWING OUR pertly DEMOCRATIC ARRANGEMENTS6.1 The Head of Learning and Development is working with the Deputy Mayor and INLOGOV to design and implement a Members Development Programme. Members training needs such as IT training and Scrutiny skills are being identified to implement a training programme.7. change INFORMATION TO THE PUBLIC7.1 altogether current job vacancies in the council are now published weekly on the Hackney Live website. The public can transfer job details and profiles, advice and guidelines on how to give way for posts and complete application forms. The One Stop Recruitment contractor Bartlett Scott Edgar manages and maintains the database of denote posts and acts as a single point for enquiries and response handling. Hackney recruitment now has corporate branding and materials are produced to amend quality standards. We intend to make it possible in the n ext year to make it possible to complete and send applications online.7.2 Our equalities scheme we will use our council website to publish the results of consultation exercises and the monitoring information in pact with our requirements under the Race Relations Amendment Act 2000.8. DEALING WITH SERVICE REQUESTS PROMPTLY AND EFFICIENTLY8.1 Members enquiries are logged and responded to within three days. All responses are approved and submitted by the ACE (HR). The service withal implements the corporate garner monitoring and complaints procedures.8.2 Complaints about externally provided HR services are raised in regular contract meetings with providers and used to review and fine tune services provided. Contracts are to monitored against HR local BVPIs.IMPROVING OPPORTUNITIES AND QUALITY OF LIFE IN THE BOROUGH AND PROMOTING SOCIAL inclusion9. GIVING OUR ADULTS THE SKILLS TO GET JOBS9.1 HR will explore the increased involvement with apprenticeships and work experience schemes to improve access for local people to council jobs.10. PROTECTING AND SUPPORTING THE more or less VULNERABLE PEOPLE IN OUR society10.1 HR ensures that all staff interviewed for posts with unsupervised access to young people have a pre-employment check through the evil Records Bureau. Agencies providing temporary staff through the One Stop Recruitment contract also carry out pre-employment and police checks onward placing them with Hackney managers. All agencies under the contract have had to pass quality criteria to ensure they carry out these procedures.